Note:  in the text of each entry, users will find terms for Orientalisms sometimes highlighted in bold and sometimes highlighted in italics.  Bold Orientalisms (e.g. Aboriginal Orientalism) refer to main entries in this glossary.  Italicized Orientalisms (e.g. Afro Orientalism) do not have their own entry but are referred to in an another entry, which is indicated by a "See" entry (e.g. Afro Orientalism. See Black Orientalism).

 

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Idealist Orientalism. See Hegelian Orientalism.

 

Ideological Orientalism

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Most scholars today use the term "Orientalism" as a short hand way of referring to this term, which, defined more narrowly, describes the ways in which large, influential numbers of Western scholars, artists, political leaders, opinion makers, and the public at large systematically imagine and construct the peoples and cultures of "the Orient" (including Arabs, Muslims, and Asians in general) as having essentially different and unchanging natures. Defined more broadly, ideological Orientalism encompasses the attitudes directed toward any supposedly exotic, unchanging Other who is taken to be essentially different from one's own Self and culture, whether "Oriental" or otherwise. The modern-day study of ideological Orientalism begins with Edward W. Said (Orientalism, 1978) who argues that especially academic Orientalism historically perpetuated a set of prejudices concerning "Orientals" that frames them, among other things, as being exotic, inferior, incapable of rational thought, emotional, incapable of change, despotic, sensual, and in all these ways the opposite of the West. Said described Orientalism as being imperialistic, colonialist, racist, and sexist. It was thus a way of defining, controlling, and exercising power over alien Others. Said's work was immediately controversial and precipitated an ongoing debate concerning the nature of ideological Orientalism, which has resulted in a more complex, nuanced understanding of it. There are forms of ideological Orientalism that are positive in which the Other is seen as being superior. In other cases, Orientalist attitudes are relatively benign, partial, or insignificant. They also change over time. Or again, these (Oriental) Others themselves often internalize the prejudices directed at them, embrace those attitudes, and rework them into positive qualities. Those who are subjected to Orientalist "othering" sometimes redirect those prejudice toward their own Others, who they see as being essentially, irredeemably inferior. As scholars have grown to understand the utility and the complexity of the notion of ideological Orientalism, they have also expanded its use to describe situations in which non-Asian Others are also often treated as having essential, unchanging, and absolutely different identities. In these ways, the concept of ideological Orientalism differs from Saidian Orientalism, which is almost entirely negative and focuses on prejudices directed toward Arabs, Muslims, and Asian peoples generally. This term itself is neither rare nor common since, as noted, most scholars simply use the short-hand term, "Orientalism" to mean "ideological Orientalism."  [revised 11/17]

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See also: Aboriginal Orientalism, Abstract Orientalism, Academic Orientalism, Accidental Orientalism, Administrative Orientalism, Aesthetic Orientalism, Affirmative Orientalism, Aggressive Orientalism, Amateur Orientalism, Ambivalent Orientalism, American Orientalism, Ancient Orientalism (Contemporary), Ancient Orientalism (Traditional), Anti-Islamic Orientalism, Anti-Semitic Orientalism, Arab Orientalism, Arabic Orientalism, Arch Orientalism, Architectural Orientalism, Asian Orientalism, Authentic Orientalism, Avant-garde Orientalism, Barbaric Orientalism, Banal Orientalism, Belated Orientalism, Binary Orientalism, Blatant Orientalism, Bloomsbury Orientalism, Bourgeois Orientalism, Brown Orientalism, Byronic Orientalism, Canadian Orientalism, Canonical Orientalism, Caribbean Orientalism, Cartographical Orientalism, Categorical Orientalism, Catholic Orientalism, Celticism, Chinese Orientalism, Chinoiserie, Chauvinistic Orientalism, Christian Orientalism, Classical Orientalism, Climatic Orientalism, Comic Orientalism, Comic Book Orientalism, Comparative Orientalism, Comparativist Orientalism, Consumer Orientalism, Contemporary Orientalism, Conventional Orientalism, Cooperative Orientalism, Creeping Orientalism, Critical Orientalism, Crude Orientalism, Cybernetic Orientalism, Decadent Orientalism, Dialectical Orientalism, Double Orientalism, Dogmatic Orientalism, Early Modern Orientalism, Eastern Orientalism, Economic Orientalism, Educational Orientalism, Egyptian Orientalism, Electronic Orientalism, Emergent Orientalism, Ethnocentric Orientalism, Ethnographic Orientalism, Eurocentric Orientalism, Euro-Orientalism, European Orientalism, Evangelical Orientalism, Fashion Orientalism, Flexible Orientalism, French Orientalism, Gendered (Gender) Orientalism, Genuine Orientalism, Global Orientalism, Good & Bad Orientalism(s), Greek Orientalism (Ancient), Greek Orientalism (Modern), Green Orientalism, Hard Orientalism, Haunted Orientalism, Hegelian Orientalism, High-tech Orientalism, Historical Orientalism, Homoerotic Orientalism, Humanistic Orientalism, Imperial Orientalism, Implicit Orientalism, Infantile Orientalism, Indirect Orientalism, Inner City Orientalism, Intellectual Orientalism, International Congress of Orientalists, International Orientalism, Institutional Orientalism, Irish Orientalism, Islamic Orientalism, Jewish Orientalism, Journalistic Orientalism, Kemalist Orientalism, Late Orientalism, Legal Orientalism, Liberal Orientalism, Literary Orientalism, Local Orientalism, Mainstream Orientalism, Male Orientalism, Maritime Orientalism, Material Orientalism, Mature Orientalism, Mediated Orientalism, Methodological Orientalism, Micro-Orientalism, Military Orientalism, Muslim Orientalism, Mythic Orientalism, Native Orientalism, Negative Orientalism, Neo-Orientalism, Nesting Orientalism, Nuclear Orientalism, Occidentalism, Official Orientalism, Old Orientalism, Oriental Enthusiasm, Oriental Fad, Oriental Fiction, Oriental Look, Oriental Orientalism, Oriental Poetry, Oriental Rage, Oriental's Orientalism, Orientalese, Orientalism Proper, Orientalism in Reverse, Orientalism Theory, Orientalist Anthropology, Orientalist Archive, Orientalist Buddhism, Orientalist Common Sense, Orientalist Epistemology, Orientalist Ethnography, Orientalist Fad, Orientalist Fantasy, Orientalist Fiction, Orientalist Gaze, Orientalist Idealism, Orientalist Imagination, Orientalist Literature, Orientalist Myth, Orientalist Nostalgia, Orientalist Parasite, Orientalist Projection, Orientalist Satire, Orientalist Science, Orientalist Teleology, Orientalist Tourism, Orthodox Orientalism, Orientology, Ottoman Orientalism, Overt Orientalism, Paradoxical Orientalism, Paranoid Orientalism, Paternalistic [Paternal] Orientalism, Patronizing Orientalism, Peripheral Orientalism, Philological Orientalism, Philosophical Orientalism, Pictorial Orientalism, Poetic Orientalism, Pop Orientalism, Positive Orientalism, Postcolonial Orientalism, Postmodern Orientalism, Pre-Modern Orientalism, Pre-Saidian Orientalism, Primary Orientalism, Professional Orientalism, Protestant Orientalism, Proto-Orientalism, Practical Orientalism (Post-Said), Pragmatic Orientalism, Psychological Orientalism, Pulp Orientalism, Quasi-Orientalism, Racist Orientalism, Radical Orientalism, Relational Orientalism, Republican Orientalism, Resurgent Orientalism, Romantic Orientalism, Russian Orientalism, Saidian Orientalism, Science Fiction Orientalism, Scientific Orientalism, Scottish Orientalism, Seaside Orientalism, Second-hand Orientalism, Secular Orientalism, Sexist Orientalism, Sexual Orientalism, Social Orientalism, Sociological Orientalism, Soft Orientalism, Soviet Orientalism, Structural Orientalism, Subversive Orientalism, Systemic Orientalism, Techno-Orientalism, Temporal Orientalism, Tertiary Orientalism, Textual Orientalism, Theological Orientalism, Theoretical Orientalism, Traditional Orientalism, Transcendental Orientalism, Transorientalism, Transplanted Orientalism, Turkish Orientalism, Unconscious Orientalism, Victorientalism, Virtual Orientalism, Visual Orientalism, Vulgar Orientalism, Wacky Orientalism, Weberian Orientalism, Western Orientalism, Xenophobic Orientalism, Zionist Orientalism.

 

Sources & Examples: Madeline Hsu, “Unwrapping Orientalist Constraints: Restoring Homosocial Normativity to Chinese American History.” Amerasia Journal 29 (2003); Aaron Hughes, Situating Islam: the Past and Future of an Academic Discipline (Equinox, 2007); Tea Jansson, “Challenging the Orientalist Reading of Mary Wortley Montagu´s Turkish Letters with Feminist Approaches” (Thesis, U. of Tampere, 2003); Nicholas Owen, The British Left and India: Metropolitan Anti-Imperialism, 1855-1947 (Oxford, 2007); Yahya Sadowski, "Political Islam: Asking the Wrong Questions." Annual Review of Political Science 9 (2006); Edward W. Said, Orientalism (Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1978); Edward W. Said, "Orientalism Reconsidered." Cultural Critique 1 (1985); Herbert R. Swanson,“Orientalism as an Ideology: the Utility of Said's Notion of Ideology for the Study of Orientalist Ideologies," 19 June 2020.  At Orientalismstudies.com (www.orientalismstudies.com).

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Imaginative Orientalism. See Orientalist Imagination.

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Imitation Orientalism. See False Orientalism.

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Imperial Orientalism

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Scholars use this term and the very closely  related terms of Imperialist Orientalism, Imperialistic Orientalism, and Orientalist Imperialism to describe policies and practices of domination associated with: first and more narrowly, the conquest, domination, and exploitation of Asian nations and peoples by historical empires, including primarily Britain and France but also including Russia, the Hapsburg Empire, and even Japan and the Ottoman Empire; second and more broadly,  the empire-like exercise of various forms of power and exploitation by major states, particularly the United States, over Asian nations and peoples; and third and most broadly, any dominating exercise of authority or control over another in Asian contexts.  Scholars differ, thus, on whether or not these terms, especially “imperial Orientalism,” can be applied to United States since it was never technically an empire, although the term “Orientalist imperialism” is applied to the United States without qualm.  In terms of Russia, “imperial Orientalism” refers to Russian Orientology prior to 1917.  Other than the question of what nations technically fall under the rubric of “imperialism,” there are no clear patterns of usage that would distinguish one of these four related terms from the other three.  Scholars use them all very frequently: “imperial Orientalism” and “imperialist Orientalism” are used most often and at roughly the same rate while “imperialistic Orientalism” and “Orientalist imperialism” are used less often.

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These four terms are important synonyms for what scholars also call traditional Orientalism or classical Orientalism, which began in the late18th and early 19th centuries and ended with World War II, meaning that they are one set of names for the dominant form of European Orientalism in that era.  It is this Orientalism that Edward W. Said documented in his book, Orientalism (1978), in which he describes Orientalism as perpetuating a set of stereotypical prejudices concerning “Orientals” that was used to justify Western cultural, political, academic, literary, religious, and aesthetic domination of them.  In many cases, thus, scholars see imperial Orientalisms as being virtually identical with Saidian Orientalism, and they usually understand them to have permeated European and American societies and cultures and to be the precursors of modern Orientalisms and postmodern Orientalisms.  In spite of the wide spread scholarly use of "imperial Orientalism" and its related terms, there are some scholars who argue that Orientalism should not always be identified with or blamed as being a source of imperialism (see Andrew Wilcox, 2017).  A few scholars use the term Anti-imperialist Orientalism to describe those who resist imperialism but still treat the Orient as having an essential, ideological identity, including Adam Smith (1723-1790) and W. E. B Dubois (1868-1963).  A very few scholars use the term neo-Orientalist imperialism to describe a more recent version of “Orientalist imperialism”.  In sum, scholars use these four terms pejoratively in the tradition of Said to emphasize Orientalism’s intimate relationship with the exercise of power over the (Oriental) Other and its complicity in the historical domination and exploitation of Asian peoples by the Western empires as well as, infrequently, by imperial Asian imperial states. [revised 4/21]

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See also: American Orientalism, Classical Orientalism, European Orientalism, Global Orientalism, Hard Orientalism, Ideological Orientalism, Modern Orientalism, Orientology, Positive Orientalism, Postmodern Orientalism, Saidian Orientalism, Traditional Orientalism, Western Orientalism.

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Sources & Examples: Imperial Orientalism: Mubarak Altwaiji, “American Orientalist Discourse: the Linguistic Formation and Transformation.” International Journal of English Linguistics 9 (2019); Meredith Aucock, "Through the Looking Glass: Themes in Narratives by Arabs, Americans, and Europeans from 1890 to 1960." Rice Historical Review 4 (2019); Mary Ann Fay, “International Feminism and the Women’s Movement in Egypt, 1904-1923: A Reappraisal of Categories and Legacies” (paper, “Conference on Institutions, Ideologies and Agencies Changing Family Life in the Arab Middle East,” 2003); Nile Green, “Parnassus of the Evangelical Empire: Orientalism and the English Universities, 1800–50.” Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 40 (2012); Brian Ireland & Sharif Gemie, “Raga Rock: Popular Music and the Turn to the East in the 1960s.” Journal of American Studies 53 (2019); Ilan Kapoor, “Capitalism, Culture, Agency: Dependency versus Postcolonial Theory.” Third World Quarterly 23.4 (2002); Michael Kemper, “Russian Oirentalism,” 2018. At Oxford Research Encyclopedias (https://oxfordre.com), accessed 4/21; Gina Kim, “Visualizing Colonial Beauty: Female Figure Paintings of Yi Yu-Tae, 1943-1944” (M.A. thesis, U. of Oregon, 2014); Orkun Kocabiyik, “Imperial Adventures: Accounts of Izmir as the Orientalism Other in British Travel Writing Tradition.” (Ph.D. diss., Ege Üniversitesi, 2011); Donna Landry, “Said before Said.” In Debating Orientalism (Palgrave Macmillan, 2013); Kaj Öhrnberg, "Georg August Wallin: An Orientalist between National and Imperial Orientalism." Studia Orientalia Electronica 110 (2011); Mehmet Orhan, “Research Methodology in Kurdish Studies: Interactions between Fieldwork, Epistemology and Theory.” Anthropology of the Middle East 15 (2020);  Xing Wang, “Rethinking Material Religion in the East: Orientalism and Religious Material Culture in Contemporary Western Academia.” Religions 9 (2018).  Imperialist Orientalism: Daniele Conversi, “Cosmopolitanism and Nationalism.” In Encyclopaedia of Nationalism (Transaction Books, 2000); Thomas R. Craig, “Challenging U.S. Undergraduates Constructions of India: Opportunities to (Re)Imagine the Other” (M.A. thesis, U. of Akron, 20189); Manan Desi, The United States of India (Temple U., 2020); Peter Gottshchalk & Mathew N. Schmalz, “Introduction.” In Engaging South Asian Religions (State U. of New York, 2011); Charles W. Hayford, “The Storm Over the Peasant: Orientalism and Rhetoric in Construing China.” In Contesting the Master Narrative: Essays in Social History (U. of Iowa, 1997); John M. Hobson, “Re-visioning Eurocentrism: A Symposium," 17 Sept. 2012. At The Disorder of Things (https://thedisorderofthings.com), accessed 4/21; Kenneth D. Jackson, “Pessoa’s English Poetry: an Overview.” Pessoa Plural: A Journal of Fernando Pessoa Studies 10 (2016); Peter A. Jackson, “The Neoliberal University and Immobilities of Theory.” In Area Studies at the Crossroads (Palgrave Macmillan, 2017); Peter A. Jackson, Spatialites of Knowledge in the Neoliberal World Academy (U. of Bonn, 2015); Athithan Jayapalan, “The Sri Lankan National Left, Imperialism and the Tamil National Question
,” n.d. At tamilnet.com (www.tamilnet.com), accessed 4/21; Chisu T. Ko, "Self-Orientalism and Inter-Imperiality in Anna Kazumi Stahl’s Flores de un solo día." Latin American and Caribbean Ethnic Studies 14 (2019); Rhodri W. Liscombe, “From the Polar Seas to Australasia: Jane Austen, ‘English Culture,’ and Regency Orientalism,” 2008. At Persuasions On-line (http://jasna.org/persuasions/on-line/), accessed 4/21; Seyyed M. Marandi & Hossein Pirnajmuddin, “‘Imaginative Geography’: Orientalist Discourse in Paradise Lost.” Pazhuhesh-e Zabanha-ye Khareji 56 (2010); Roohollah Roozbeh, “Hollywood Adaptation of Thousand and One Nights: A Crhtical Analysis based on Hutecheon’s (2006) Theory.” International Journal of Egnliosh Language & Translation Studies 5 (2017); Andrew Wilcox, Orientalism and Imperialism: From Nineteenth-Century Missionary Imaginings to the Contemporary Middle East (Bloomsbury, 2018).  Imperialistic Orientalism: Laura Chrisman, “Empire, ‘Race’ and Feminism at the fin de siècle: the Work of George Egerton and Olive Schreiner.” In Cultural Politics at the Fin de Siècle (Cambridge, 1995); Ignacio López-Calvo, “The Study of Orientalism and South-South Dialogs between the ‘Orient’ and the Luso-Hipanic World,” 2017. At bardulia (ignaciolopezcalvo.blogspot), accessed 4/21; Chisu T. Ko, “Orientalism and De-Orientalism in Contemporary Latin America: Reading César Aira. Transmodernity 8 (2018); Vernon Ruland, Eight Sacred Horizons: The Religious Imagination East and West (Macmillan, 1985); Andrew Wilcox, Orientalism and Imperialism: From Nineteenth-Century Missionary Imaginings to the Contemporary Middle East (Bloomsbury Academic, 2018); Nathan S. Winters, “School Girls with Katanas: Appropriating Jananeseness and the Postmodern Cool in Sucker Punch” (M.A. thesis, Bowling Green State U., 2012).  Orientalist Imperialism: Dominic Alessio & Jessica Langer, “Science Fiction, Hindu Nationalism and Modernity Bollywood’s Koi... Mil Gaya.” In Science Fiction, Imperialism
 and the Third World (McFarland & Co., 2010); Ivan Kalmar, “Jewish Orientalism.” In Judaism from the Renaissance to Modern Times (Brill, 1999); Shlomy Mualem, "Imaginative Geography: Dialectical Orientalism in Borges." Transmodernity: 6 (2016); William O'Reilly, “Fredrick Jackson Turner's Frontier Thesis, Orientalism, and the Austrian Militärgrenze.” Journal of Austrian-American History 2 (2018); Andréa E. Schnell, “Gertrude Bell: An Orientalist in Context” (M.A. thesis, 
McGill U., 2008); Yuki Schwartz, “The Shame Culture of Empire: The Chrysanthemum and the Sword as Handbook for Cold War Imperialism.” In Feminist Praxis against U.S. Militarism (Lexington Books, 2020); Hugh B. Urban, The Power of Tantra: Religion, Sexuality, and the Politics of South Asian Studies (I. B. Tauris, 2010).

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Imperialist Orientalism. See Imperial Orientalism.

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Imperialistic Orientalism. See Imperial Orientalism.

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Implicit Orientalism

 

Scholars use this term and the closely related terms Implied Orientalism, Inherent Orientalism, Intrinsic Orientalism, and Tacit Orientalism to describe their sense that Orientalists (primarily Western, but Asian as well) are usually not aware that sets of Orientalist stereotypes and prejudices inform their attitudes and behaviors towards Asians.  The use of these terms recalls Edward W. Said’s notion of latent Orientalism (Orientalism, 1978), and scholars using them occasionally cite him.  This set of terms is also closely related to the notion of unconscious Orientalism as well as the terms related to hidden Orientalism.  Scholars generally this set of terms to underscore this idea that Orientalists habitually assume that Orientals have an essential, unchanging identity usually considered to be inferior to the West, and that this unthinking habit of mind is integral to Orientalism itself.  Scholars often see implicit Orientalisms as being embedded in culture and expressed through ideological stereotypes and prejudices, which are communicated in a myriad of ways including through academic traditions, social media, entertainment media, news media, advertising, and political and international institutions, to name only a few.  These Orientalisms thus permeate cultures and cultural institutions as sets of unquestioned, common sense assumptions.  David Tal (2017), for example, discerns an “implied Orientalism” in Western feminists’ unconsciously self-promoting objections to Arab women wearing miniskirts.  Maryam Sakeenah (2010) argues that Samuel Huntington’s “clash of civilizations thesis” is based on an “inherent Orientalism” paired with a strain of Western-centrism.  Eda Acra (2015) cites Turkish “Kemalism’” and its negative attitudes towards the “backward” Ottomans as being an example of an Asian “intrinsic Orientalism”.  There are a number of problems involved in the use of these terms including that scholars most often use them in passing leaving it to their readers to discern their meaning and that is that they are in and of themselves difficult to define precisely. They are also permeable: Michael Larson (2019) thus describes how the author Pearl Buck was, through her long experience with China, able to compensate in some ways for her inherent Orientalist attitudes.  Of these terms, only “inherent Orientalism” and "intrinsic Orientalism" seem to have been used in the 19th century when both were used to mean those things that are essentially Oriental in nature.  [4/21]

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See also: Academic Orientalism, Creeping Orientalism, Feminist Orientalism, Haunted Orientalism, Hidden Orientalism, Ideological Orientalism, Indirect Orientalism, Latent Orientalism, Liberal Orientalism, Mainstream Orientalism, Naïve Orientalism, Neoliberal Orientalism, Orientalist Common Sense, Popular Orientalism, Saidian Orientalism, Self-Orientalism, Turkish Orientalism, Unconscious Orientalism.

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Sources & Examples: Implicit Orientalism: Alex, “Garden State,” 2004. At A Thaumaturgical Compendium (http://alex.halavais.net), accessed 3/21; Mustafa Armagan, “Montaigne and the Ottomans,” 2006. At The Fountain (https://fountainmagazine.com), accessed 3/21; Helen H. Cho, “The Highly Charged Rhetoric in Trade Politics: Representations of China During the 2010 U.S. Midterm Elections” (M.A. thesis, Georgetown U., 2011); Raewyn Connell, “Lingusitics and Language in the Global Economy of Knowledge: A Commentary.” In Colonial and Decolonial Linguistics: Knowledge and Epistemes (Oxford, 2020); Ambereen Dadabhoy, “’Going Native’: Geography, Gender, and Identity in Lady Mary Wortley Montagu’s Turkish Embassy Letters.” In Gender and Space in British Literature, 1660-1820 (Routledge, 2014); Burhanettin Duran, “How the Western Media Hurts Turkey’s Opposition,” 2018. At Daily Sabah (www.dailysabah.com), accessed 3/21; Anya P. Foxen, Inhaling Spirit: Harmonialism, Orientalism, and the Western Roots of Modern Yoga (Oxford, 2020); Mélissa Gélinas, “Africa in Translation: A History of Colonial Linguistics in Germany and Beyond, 1814-1945.” Cambridge Journal of Postcolonial Inquiry 3 (2016); David Hakken, “The Value of an Evolutionary View to Globalizing Informatics Research.” In Globalization as Evolutionary Process: Modeling Global Change (Routledge, 2008); Sharron Hinchliff & Andrew King, "Ageing Sexualities Through a Critical Lens: Bringing Social Psychology, Sociology, and Intersectionality into Dialogue." In Psychologies of Ageing (Palgrave Macmillan), 2018; Denijal Jegic, “The Fear of Palestinian Existence,” 2018. At The Palestinian Chronicle (www.palestinechronicle.com), accessed 3/21; Paul Manning, Strangers in a Strange Land (Academic Studies Press, 2012); Dimitrios Theodossopoulos, “Infuriated with the Infuriated? Blaming Tactics and Discontent about the Greek Financial Crisis.” Current Anthropology 54 ( 2013); Gertjan van Stam, "Africa’s Non-inclusion in Defining Fifth Generation Mobile Networks." In International Conference on e-Infrastructure and e-Services for Developing Countries: 8th International Conference… (Springer, 2016); Andrea M. Whittaker, “Reproduction Opportunists in the New Global Sex Trade: PGD and Non-medical Sex Selection.” Reproductive BioMedicine Online 23 (2011).  Implied Orientalism: Allen Fisher, “Simulation and the ‘Grand Theme’ in R. B. Kitaj’s An Early Europe.” At Allen Fisher (https://allenfisher.edublogs.org), accessed 3/21); Saskia Glas, et. al., “Between Socialization and Agency:
Understanding the Link between Religion and Opposing Gender Equality in the Middle East and North Africa between 2001 and 2014,” n.d. At ecpr (www.gc.ecpr.eu), accessed 3/21; Gloria M. Hernández, “Presence, Absence and Divine Vision:
A Comparative Study of the Cántico espiritual and Rāsa Līlā” (Ph.D. diss., Emory U., 2011);  Victoria M. Muñoz, Spanish Romance in the Battle for Global Supremacy (Anthem Press, 2021); Noam Reisner, review article, “Douglas A. Brooks (ed.), Milton and the Jews.” The Review of English Studies NS 60 (2009); David Tal, “Jacqueline Kahanoff and the Demise of the Levantine.” Mediterranean Historical Review 32 (2017); Roger Vignoles, Review. “Mahler, Gustav Songs; Stephan Genzz, Roger Vignoles,” 2004. At cd and lp (www.cdandlp.com/en), accessed 3/21; Inherent Orientalism: 19th Century: “Books of the Month,” [Review of Montesquieu’ Persian Letters] Lippincott’s Monthly Magazine 64 (1899); Frances Hadley, “Leo Tolstoi: A Character Sketch.” Our Day: The Altruistic Review 15 (1895); L. S. Lavenu, Erlesmere: or, Contrasts of Character, new ed. (Smith, Elder, & Co, 1862). Contemporary Usage: Tahir Abbas, Islamic Radicalism and Multicultural Politics: The British Experience (Routledge, 2011; Houria Achir, “The Perception of the Orient in T. E. Lawrence’s Seven Pillars of Wisdom” (M.A. essay, AbouBekr Belkaid University of Tlemcen, 2016-17); Syed F. Alatas, “Religion, Values, and Capitalism in Asia.” In Local Cultures and the “New Asia”: The State, Culture, and Capitalism in Southeast Asia (Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2002); Gabriel Babuch, “Western Food Perceptions in the Land of the Rising Sun” (Honors thesis, UCLA, 2020); Sagnik Bhattacharya, “Monsters in the Dark: the Discovery of Thuggee and Demographic Knowledge in Colonial India.” Palgrave Communications 6 (2020); Antje Budde, “How to Slam the Door, or Not to, or Almost, or Maybe...: Configurations of a Speculative Moment in the Global Doll House of Patriarchal Order.” Canadian Review of Comparative Literature (June 2011); Margaret Daly, “Opera, Ethnicity, and Class: Understanding the Social Dynamics of Taste through Puccini’s Madama Butterfly" (B.A. essay, Wesleyan U., 2015); Sissy Helft, “Imagining Flight in Abdulrazak Gurnah’s By Sea.” Zeitschrift für Anglistik und Amerikanistik 56 (2008); Xavier J. Hernandez, "Filipino American College Students at the Margins of Neoliberalism." Policy Futures in Education 14 (2016); Michael Larson, “Pearl S. Buck, Pavilion of Women,
and Early Twentieth-Century Chinese Feminism.” Journal of Jissen English Department 71 (2019); Nayankika Mookherjee, “Introduction: Self in South Asia.” Journal of Historical Sociology 26 (2013); Amnon Raz-Krakotzkin, “Exile, History, and the Nationalization of Jewish Memory: Some Reflections on the Zionist Notion of History and Return.” Journal of Levantine Studies 3 (2013); Juliet Rogers, Law’s Cut on the Body of Human Rights: Female Circumcision, Torture and Sacred Flesh (Routledge, 2014); Maryam Sakeenah, Us Versus Them and Beyond: An Oriental-Islamic Rejoinder to the Clash of Civilizations Theory (The Other Press, 2010); Teodora Todorova, "Reframing Bi‐nationalism in Palestine‐Israel as a Process of Settler Decolonisation." Antipode 47 (2015); Twist_admin, “Aladdin, the Reflection of Orientalism,” 2017. At Twist Islamophobia (http://twistislamophobia.org/en), accessed 4/21.  Intrinsic Orientalism: Eda Acra, “Conflict Geographies of Water Pollution in Thrace Region of Turkey” (Ph.D. diss., Queens U., 2015); Karin Althans, Darkness Subverted: Aboriginal Gothic in Black Australian Literature and Film (V&R unipress, 2010); “British Criticism of the Old Testament.” The Edinburgh Review 176 (1892); Quan Manh Ha & William Frost, “Postcolonial Satire, Imperialist Nostalgia, and Reconciliation in Huy Duong Phan’s “The Billion Dollar Skeleton” and Andrew Lam’s “Slingshot.” Journal of the Short Story in English 71 (2018); Paul Miller, “Continuity and Change in Etruscan Domestic Architecture A Study of Building Techniques and Materials from 800-500 BC.” (Ph.D. diss., U. of Edinburgh, 2015); Harika E. Oskay, “Artist as an Ethnic Curiosity: The Extended Line of Orientalism,” n.d. At Foundation Max Van Berchem Genéve (https://maxvanberchem.org/en/), accessed 3/21.  Tacit Orientalism: Isa Blumi, Foundations of Modernity: Human Agency and the Imperial State (Routledge, 2012); Young Eun Chae, "Screening the Past: Historiography of Contemporary South Korean Cinema, 1998-2008" (Ph.D. diss., U. of North Carolina, 2011); Eric R. J. Hayot, Chinese Dreams: Pound, Brecht, Tel Quel (U. of Michigan, 2003); Julie Mahdavi & Anqi Telleen, “Les Objects Etrangers: Tumbir Exhibition Highlight,” 2017. At European Fashion Heritage Association (https://fashionheritage.eu), accessed 4/21; Ming Xie, Ezra Pound and the Appropriation of Chinese Poetry: Cathay, Translation, and Imagism (Routledge, 1999).  See Also: Herbert R. Swanson, "Almost Unconscious: Towards a History of Said’s Notion of Latent Orientalism," 18 July 2021.  On this website.

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Implied Orientalism. See Implicit Orientalism.

 

Inadvertent Orientalism. See Accidental Orientalism.

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Incipient Orientalism. See Early Orientalism.

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Indigenous Orientalism

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Scholars use this term usually to describe a form of reverse Orientalism or self-Orientalism employed especially by Asian educated elites including scholars, which draws on Western ideological Orientalist discourses, institutions, and practices to imagine their own non-European Self in relationship to a Western Other, e.g. a European colonial power. There are two large classes of indigenous Orientalisms. First, indigenous Orientalist discourses, institutions, and practices may be used to treat one's own non-Western culture, especially traditional culture, as an inferior Other. Legal scholars in post-1948 China, for example, often look on traditional Chinese law as being essentially inferior to modern, Western-style law. In this usage, indigenous Orientalism is a form of internal Orientalism that is usually directed at one's own people as a form of self-Orientalism. Poddar and Subba (1992) coined the otherwise rarely used term home-grown Orientalism to describe this first form.  Second, some scholars use this term to describe the ways in which "indigenous," non-Western Orientalist discourses, institutions, and practices are employed to define an exterior, alien Other that is deemed to be essentially inferior—such as views sometimes held in Turkey regarding Arabs. Additionally, this term is also sometimes used to differentiate American Orientalism from European Orientalism; Americans, that is, have their own "indigenous" Orientalisms.  [6/16]

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See also: Brown Orientalism, Reverse Orientalism, Self-Orientalism, Ideological Orientalism, Internal Orientalism, Legal Orientalism, Neo-Orientalism.

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Sources & Examples: Philip C. Huang, Chinese Civil Justice, Past and Present ( Rowman & Littlefield, 2010); Marcia C. Inhorn, The New Arab Man: Emergent Masculinities, Technologies, and Islam in the Middle East (Princeton, 2012); Seyed M. Marandi, “EurocentricismandAcademic Imperialism,” 2014. At ZarCom Media (www.zarcommedia.com), accessed 6/16; S. Habib Mousavi & Fateme Ghafoori, “Masked Orientalism Exhibited in Local Movies: An Orientalist Reading of Livre de la Loi.” International Journal of Social Science and Humanity 2 (2012); Prem K. Poddar & T. B. Subba, “Unpacking Home-grown Orientalism and Area Studies in India.” Journal of the Indian Anthropological Society 27 (1992); Öykö Potuoǧlu-Cook,”Night Shifts: Moral, Economic, and Cultural Politics of Turkish Belly Dance Across the Fins-de-Siécle” (Ph.D. diss., Northwestern, 2008); Fionnghuala Sweeny, Frederick Douglass and the Atlantic World (U. of Liverpool, 2007); Mercedes Volait, “Appropriating Orientalism? Saber Sabri’s Mamluk Revivals in Late-Nineteenth-Century Cairo.” In Islamic Art in the 19th Century: Tradition, Innovation, and Eclecticism (Brill, 2006); Francis Zimmerman, “A Hindu to His Body: The Reinscription of Traditional Representations.” In Images of the Body in India: South Asian and European Perspectives on Ritual and Performativity (Routledge, 2011).

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Indirect Orientalism

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Scholars generally use this term to describe forms of what are more often termed hidden Orientalism by which Orientalist ideas about the (Oriental) Other are expressed in less open, less obvious, and more round about ways. A few other scholars have used the first meaning of the term second-hand Orientalism (i.e. cases in which somewhat innocuous Orientalist influences seep into the ways in which Orientalists imagine and construct “the Orient”) in the same way. Scholars also use this term in other ways as well. Jülide Karakoç (2016) uses it to describe the ways in which American Orientalist foreign policy in the Middle East relies ("indirectly") upon local actors such as Turkey or Israel for its conduct. in the late 19th century, C. Stuart Johnson used it in passing to describe the ways in which Vienna Orientalists historically drew on the Orientalism of Venice to ("indirectly") imagine and construct "the Orient."   This term is used only infrequently.  [6/17]

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See also: Hidden Orientalism, Ideological Orientalism, Implicit Orientalism, Second-hand Orientalism.

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Sources & Examples: “Comparing the two seminal 9/11 films: Oliver Stone's World Trade Center and Paul Greengrass' United 93,” 2009.  At Entertaining Americanism (http://entertainingamerican.blogspot.com), accessed 6/17; William Henry Foster, Gender, Mastery and Slavery: From European to Atlantic World Frontier (Palgrave Macmillan, 2010); Jülide Karakoç, “Challenges to US Middle East Policy in the Post-Arab Uprisings Period.” In New Actors and Issues in the Post-Arab Uprisings Period (Cambridge Scholars, 2016); Brian J. O’Neill, “Displaced Identities Among the Malacca Portuguese.” In Recasting Culture and Space in Iberian Contexts (State U. of New York, 2008); Douglas Reynolds, Turkey, Greece, and the “Borders” of Europe: Images of Nations in the West German Press, 1950-1975 (Frank & Timme GmbH, 2013); C. Stuart Johnson, “Wilhelm Kray.” Munsey’s Magazine 7 (April-September 1892).

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Indo-Orientalism. See Indological Orientalism.

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Indo-chic Orientalism. See Popular Orientalism.

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Indological Orientalism

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This term refers to Indology, which, historically, was the study of Indian languages, literature, history, and culture that was considered to be an important branch of the field of study of academic Orientalism. Scholars generally use this term to describe the ways in which Indology, especially in the 19th century, was a vessel for and even an expression of Saidian Orientalism and was used as such to imagine and construct an India that was taken to be essentially different from the West. Many European Indologists, although not all by any means, constructed India as an essentially and irredeemably inferior, backward, and uncivilized nation especially in contrast to the West. However, others in the West and among Indian thinkers drew on Indology to imagine India as being essentially more spiritual than and thus superior to the materialistic West. And within India, Orientalist Indology has been used as a cultural and political tool to promote certain forms of nationalism; a small number of scholars, notably Jukka Jouhki, term this "indigenous" Indian version of Orientalism, Indo-Orientalism.

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See also: Academic Orientalism, Ideological Orientalism, Reverse Orientalism, Saidian Orientalism, Sinological Orientalism, Traditional Orientalism.

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Sources & Examples: Robert E. Frykenberg, “Hindutva as a Political Religion: An Historical Perspective.” In The Sacred in Twentieth-Century Politics: Essays in Honour of Professor Stanley G. Payne (Palgrave Macmillan, 2008); David N. Geraghty, “Old Stories, New Authors: Orientalism, Compolitanism and India” (Ph.D. disss., Monash, 2014); Norman J. Girardot, The Victorian Translation of China: James Legge’s Oriental Pilgrimage (U. of California, 2002); Jukka Jouhki, “Imagining the Other: Orientalism and Occidentalism in Tamil-European Relations in South Indi.” (diss., U. of Jyväskylä, 2006); Jukka Jouhki,  "Orientalism and India." J@rgonia 4 (2006); Richard King, Orientalism and Religion: Postcolonial Theory, India and "the Mystic East" (Routledge, 1999); Santosh C. Saha, “Hindu Revivalist Cultural Policies and Programs in India: A Critique.” In Religious Fundamentalism in the Contemporary World: Critical Social and Political Issues (Lexington Books, 2004).

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Infantile Orientalism

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This term and its synonym childish Orientalism are used more often in the blogosphere than they are by scholars. Both are very rare even there but do show something of the ways in which the notion of ideological Orientalism has been used beyond the pale of scholarship. These terms are generally used to point to what their users take to be immature, blatant, heedless, and unthinking Western prejudices against Arab/Muslim peoples and point to the socialization of ideological Orientalism in Western cultures.  [8/16]

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See also: Blatant Orientalism, Hard Orientalism, Ideological Orientalism.

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Sources & Examples: Infantile Orientalism: Hani Shukrallah, “Western Media and the Brotherhood: Secrets Behind the Love Affair,” 2012. At Ahramonline (http://english.ahram.org.eg), accessed 8/16.  Childish Orientalism: Mehron Abdollmohammadi, “Infant Phenomenology,” 2013. At OP: Original Plumbing (www.originalplumbing.com), accessed 8/16.

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Inherent Orientalism. See Implicit Orientalism.

 

Inner City (Inner-City) Orientalism

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Use of this term is identified with the work of Stephen Graham (2009, 2011, 2012), who draws on Michel Foucault’s notion of “boomerang effects,” which argues that Western colonial powers used on their own citizens techniques of repression developed in their colonies.  Graham thus argues that since World War II European colonial powers have often drawn on overseas colonial Orientalist stereotypes to imagine and construct certain domestic urban enclaves, especially those populated by immigrants, as being similar to their overseas colonies.  Those enclaves, that is, are stereotyped as being poor, backward, racially and culturally alien, and frequently imagined to be prone to terrorism and thus dangerous to national security.  Scholars particularly identify inner city Orientalisms with right wing and white supremacist movements as well as neoliberal attitudes towards the poor.  Scholarly use of this term has mostly focused on European cities, especially in France.  Inner city Orientalism may be considered to be a form of urban Orientalism, but it is distinctive in that it focuses specifically on Western cities in the post-World War II era and is framed by scholars as being a reflexive offshoot of Western colonialism.  This term is used only infrequently and those who use it almost always cite Graham.  [12/20]

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See also: Ideological Orientalism, Neoliberal Orientalism, Racist Orientalism, Urban Orientalism.

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Sources & Examples: Charlotte Chadderton, "The Militarisation of English Schools: Troops to Teaching and the Implications for Initial Teacher Education and Race Equality." Race Ethnicity and Education 17 (2014); Stephen Graham, “Cities as Battlespace The New Military Urbanism.” City 13 (2009); Stephen Graham, Cities Under Siege: The New Military Urbanism (Verso Books, 2011); Stephen Graham, “Foucault’s Boomerang—The New Military Urbanism.” development dialogue 58 (2012); Nicole Nguyen, "Chokepoint: Regulating US Student Mobility Through Biometrics." Political Geography 46 (2015); Diana Norton, “Immigration and Spanish Subjectivity in No habrá paz para los malvados.” In Toward a Multicultural Configuration of Spain: Local Cities, Global Spaces (Fairleigh Dickinson U., 2015).

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